The U.S. Army Center of Military History presents ...

Cover: American Military History, Volume I

View as HTML

Download as PDFs


ARMY HISTORICAL SERIES

 

AMERICAN MILITARY HISTORY

VOLUME 1


THE UNITED STATES ARMY

AND THE

FORGING OF A NATION, 1775-1917

Richard W. Stewart
General Editor

 

Logo: Military Instruction


Center of Military History
United States Army
Washington, D.C., 2005


 

 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

American military history / Richard W. Stewart, general editor.
          p. cm. — (Army historical series)
     Includes bibliographical references and index.
     1. United States—History, Military. 2. United States. Army
  —History. I. Stewart, Richard W. (Richard Winship), 1951–    .
  II. Series.
  E181.A44 2004
  355’.00973—dc22

2004052970

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CMH Pub 30–21

 

 


For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov    Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800;    DC area (202) 512-1800
Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001

ISBN 0-16-072362-0




United States Army Historical Series

Advisory Committee
(As of October 2004)
 

Jon T. Sumida
University of Maryland

Eric Bergerud
Lincoln University

Mark Bowden
The Philadelphia Inquirer

Lt. Gen. Franklin L. Hagenbeck
Deputy Chief of Staff, G–1

Brig. Gen. James T. Hirai
U.S. Army Command and
General Staff College

Lt. Gen. Anthony R. Jones
U.S. Army Training and
Doctrine Command

Brig. Gen. Daniel J. Kaufman
U.S. Military Academy

Adrian R. Lewis
University of North Texas

Brian M. Linn
Texas A&M University

Howard Lowell
National Archives and Records Administration

Col. Craig Madden
U.S. Army War College

John H. Morrow, Jr.
The University of Georgia

Reina Pennington
Norwich University

Ronald H. Spector
The George Washington University


U.S. Army Center of Military History

Brig. Gen. John S. Brown, Chief of Military History
 

Chief Historian
Chief, Histories Division
Editor in Chief
Jeffrey J. Clarke
Richard W. Stewart
John W. Elsberg
 
iii



FOREWORD

      American Military History
intends to provide the United States Army—in particular, its young officers, NCOs, and cadets—with a comprehensive but brief account of its past. The Center of Military History first published the book in 1956 as a textbook for senior ROTC courses. It has gone through a number of updates and revisions since then, but the primary intent has remained the same. Support for military history education has always been a principal mission of the Center, and this new edition of an invaluable history furthers that purpose.
      The history of an active organization tends to expand rapidly as the organization grows larger and more complex. The period since the Vietnam War, at which point the most recent edition ended, has been a significant one for the Army, a busy period of expanding roles and missions and of fundamental organizational changes. In planning an update, it became clear that trying to wedge this additional sweep of history into the previous single-volume format would yield a cumbersome book. We are thus publishing a revised and expanded edition in two volumes.
      This first volume covers the Army’s history from its birth in 1775 to the eve of World War I. By 1917 the United States was already a world power. The Army had sent large expeditionary forces beyond the American hemisphere, and at the beginning of the new century Secretary of War Elihu Root had proposed changes and reforms that within a generation would shape the Army of the future. But world war—global war—was still to come. The second volume of this new edition will take up that story and extend it into the twenty-first century.
      We have developed a new design to reflect the often highly visual nature of contemporary textbooks. Our primary audience is still the young officer and NCO, but by adopting a more illustrated format we also hope to promote a greater awareness of the Army’s history within the American public. In so doing, we remain mindful of the Center’s responsibility to publish an accurate and objective account. We owe no less to the soldier and the veteran, to the student and the teacher, and to those pursuing a personal interest in learning more about the Army’s campaigns—and about its role in the larger history of the nation.
Washington, D.C.
22 July 2004
JOHN S. BROWN
Brigadier General, USA
Chief of Military History
 
v



PREFACE

     
Despite the popular image of the solitary historian immured in the stacks of a library or archives, history is very much a collective enterprise. This is true not only in philosophical terms (all historians stand on the shoulders of previous generations of scholars) but also in the practical sense that historians rely heavily on the work of many others when they attempt to weave a narrative that covers centuries of history. American Military History is truly such a collaborative work.
      Over the years numerous military historians have contributed to the earlier versions of this textbook published in 1956, 1969, and 1989. In this latest telling of the story of the U.S. Army, additional scholars inside and outside the Center of Military History have conducted research, written or revised chapters and inserts, or reviewed the texts of others. Other experts have edited text, proofed bibliographies, prepared maps, and located photographs to bring this book together.
      It is important to highlight those historians and other professionals who have helped make this book a reality. Indeed, there were so many contributors that I hasten to beg forgiveness in advance if I have inadvertently left someone off this list. First, I wish to thank those many scholars outside the Center of Military History who voluntarily gave of their time to review chapters of this book and provide their expertise to ensure that the latest scholarship and sources were included. These scholars include: John Shy, Don Higginbotham, Robert Wright, John Mahon, William Skelton, Joseph Dawson, Joseph Glathaar, Gary Gallagher, Carol Reardon, Mark Grimsley, Perry Jamieson, Robert Wooster, Brian Linn, Timothy Nenninger, Edward Coffman, David Johnson, Stanley Falk, Mark Stoler, Gerhard Weinberg, Edward Drea, Steve Reardon, Allan R. Millett, Charles Kirkpatrick, and Eric Bergerud. Their careful reviews and suggested additions to the manuscript enriched the story immeasurably and saved me from numerous errors in interpretation and fact. Within the Center of Military History, of course, we have a number of outstanding historians of our own to draw upon. The Center is, I believe, as rich in talent in military history as anywhere else in the country; and I was able to take advantage of that fact. In particular, I would like to thank the following historians from the Histories Division for their writing and reviewing skills: Andrew J. Birtle, Jeffrey A. Charlston, David W. Hogan, Edgar F. Raines, Stephen A. Carney, William M. Donnelly, William M. Hammond, and Joel D. Meyerson. Within the division, every member participated in writing the short inserts that appear throughout the text. In addition to the names previously listed, I would be remiss if I did not also thank Stephen J. Lofgren, William J. Webb, Dale Andrade, Gary A. Trogdon, James L. Yarrison, William A. Dobak, Mark D. Sherry, Bianka J. Adams, W. Blair Haworth, Terrence J. Gough, William A. Stivers, Erik B. Villard, Charles E. White, Shane Story, and Mark J. Reardon. Whether they have been in the division for one year or twenty, their contributions to this work and to the history of the U.S. Army are deeply appreciated.
      I particularly wish to thank the Chief of Military History, Brig. Gen. John Sloan Brown, for his patience and encouragement as he reviewed all of the text to provide his own insightful comments. He also found time, despite his busy schedule, to write the final two chapters of the second volume to bring the story of the U.S. Army nearly up to the present day. Also, I wish to thank Michael Bigelow, the Center’s Executive Officer, for his contribution. In addition, I would like to note the support and guidance that I received from the Chief Historian of the Army, Jeffrey J. Clarke, and the Editor in Chief, John W. Elsberg. Their experience and wisdom is always valued. I wish to thank
vii



the outstanding editor of American Military History, Diane M. Donovan, who corrected my ramblings, tightened my prose, and brought consistency to the grammar and style. Her patience and skilled work made this a much finer book. I also wish to thank those who worked on the graphics, photographs, and maps that helped make this book so interesting and attractive. This book would not have been possible without the diligence and hard work of the Army Museum System Staff, as well as Beth MacKenzie, Keith Tidman, Sherry Dowdy, and Dennis McGrath. Their eye for detail and persistence in tracking down just the right piece of artwork or artifact or providing the highest quality map was of tremendous value.
      Although countless historians have added to this text over the years, I know that any attempt to write a survey text on the history of the U.S. Army will undoubtedly make many errors of commission and omission. I take full responsibility for them and will endeavor, when informed, to correct them as best I can in future editions. In conclusion, I wish to dedicate this book to the finest soldiers in the world, to the men and women who have fought and died in service to the United States over two centuries and those who continue to serve to protect our freedom. They have built America into what it is today, and they continue to defend the principles upon which our great country was founded. This is their story.
Washington, D.C.
14 June 2004
RICHARD W. STEWART
Chief, Histories Division
viii



CONTENTS

Chapter
..
Page
1.

INTRODUCTION

1
 

What Is Military History?

1
 

Theory and Practice of War

5
 

The American Military System

14
2.

THE BEGINNINGS

19
 

The European Heritage

19
 

The Military Revolution

21
 

Eighteenth Century European Warfare

22
 

The Colonial Scene

27
 

Colonial Militia

30
 

The Colonies in the World Conflict, 1689-1783

32
 

The American Rifle

40
 

The Colonial Heritage

41
3.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, FIRST PHASE

45
 

The Outbreak

46
 

Formation of the Continental Army

50
 

The Invasion of Canada and the Fall of Boston

53
 

The New Nation

55
 

Evolution of the Continental Army

57
 

The British Problem

61
 

Of Strategy

63
 

The British Offensive in 1776

64
 

Trenton and Princeton

70
4.

THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1777-1783

75
 

The Campaign of 1777

75
 

Valley Forge

85
 

First Fruits of the French Alliance

87
 

The New Conditions of the War

89
 

British Successes in the South

90
 

Nadir of the American Cause

93
 

Greene's Southern Campaign

95
 

Yorktown: The Final Act

98
 

Surrender of Cornwallis

101
 

The Summing Up: Reasons, Lessons, and Meaning

102
5.

THE FORMATIVE YEARS, 1783-1812

107
 

The Question of a Peacetime Army

107
 

Toward a More Perfect Union

111
 

The Militia

114
 

Military Realities in the Federalist Period

116
 

The Indian Expeditions

116
 

Battle of Fallen Timbers

120
 

The Perils of Neutrality

120
 

The Quasi War with France

121
 

Defense under Jefferson

123
 

The Army and Westward Expansion

124
 

American Reaction to the Napoleonic Wars

127
6.

THE WAR OF 1812

131
 

Origins of the War

131
 

The Opposing Forces

132
 

The Strategic Pattern

136
 

The First Campaigns

136
 

The Second Year, 1813

139
 

The Last Year of the War, 1814

148
 

New Orleans: The Final Battle

153
7.

TOWARD A PROFESSIONAL ARMY

159
 

Organizing an Army

160
 

The War Hatchet Raised in Florida

161
 

John C. Calhoun and the War Department

164
 

Pioneering in the West

166
 

The Second Seminole War, 1835-1842

168
 

Westward Expansion and the Texas Issue

171
 

The Professional Officer

172
8.

THE MEXICAN WAR AND AFTER

175
 

The Period of Watchful Waiting

175
 

The Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma

176
 

War Is Declared

178
 

The Monterrey Campaign

180
 

The Battle of Buena Vista

182
 

The Landing at Vera Cruz

185
 

The Battle of Cerro Gordo

186
 

Contreras, Churubusco, Chapultepec

187
 

Occupation and Negotiation in Mexico City

190
 

The Army on the New Frontier

190
 

Increasing the Peacetime Army

192
 

Weapons and Tactics on the Eve of the Civil War

192
9.

THE CIVIL WAR, 1861

197
 

Secession, Sumter, and Standing to Arms

197
 

The Opponents

204
 

First Bull Run (First Manassas)

207
 

The Second Uprising in 1861

212
10.

THE CIVIL WAR, 1862

221
 

The War in the East: The Army of the Potomac Moves South

221
 

Jackson's Valley Campaign

223
 

The Peninsula Campaign

224
 

The Seven Days' Battles

225
 

Second Bull Run

227
 

Lee Invades Maryland

229
 

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation

231
 

Fiasco at Fredericksburg

233
 

The War in the West: The Twin Rivers Campaign

235
 

Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson

236
 

Confederate Counterattack at Shiloh

238
 

Perryville to Stones River

240
 

The War West of the Mississippi

244
11.

THE CIVIL WAR, 1863

249
 

The East: Hooker Crosses the Rappahannock

249
 

Chancellorsville: Lee's Boldest Risk

252
 

Lee's Second Invasion of the North

254
 

Gettysburg

257
 

The West: Confusion over Clearing the Mississippi

263
 

Grant's Campaign against Vicksburg

264
 

The Chickamauga Campaign

268
 

Grant at Chattanooga

274
12.

THE CIVIL WAR, 1864-1865

279
 

Unity of Command

279
 

Lee Cornered at Richmond

283
 

Sherman's Great Wheel to the East

288
 

Thomas Protects the Nashville Base

292
 

Lee's Last 100 Days

294
 

Dimensions of the War

297
13.

DARKNESS AND LIGHT: THE INTERWAR YEARS, 1865-1898

303
 

Demobilization, Reorganization, and the French Threat in Mexico

303
 

Reconstruction

304
 

Domestic Disturbances

307
 

The National Guard Movement

308
 

Isolation and Professional Development

309
 

Line and Staff

312
 

Technical Development

313
 

Civil Accomplishment

316
14.

WINNING THE WEST: THE ARMY IN THE INDIAN WARS, 1865-1890

321
 

The Setting and the Challenge

322
 

Life in the Frontier Army

322
 

The Bozeman Trail

326
 

The Southern Plains

328
 

The Northwest

331
 

The Southwest

333
 

The Northern Plains

335
15.

EMERGENCE TO WORLD POWER, 1898-1902

341
 

A New Manifest Destiny

341
 

Trouble in Cuba

342
 

Mobilizing for War

343
 

Victory at Sea: Naval Operations in the Caribbean and the Pacific

346
 

Operations in the Caribbean

347
 

The Battle of Santiago

349
 

The Fall of Manila

353
 

The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902

354
 

The Boxer Uprising

360
16.

TRANSITION, CHANGE, AND THE ROAD TO WAR, 1902-1917

365

 

Modernizing the Armed Forces

366
 

Reorganization of the Army: Establishment of the General Staff

369
 

Reorganization of the Army: The Regular Army and the Militia

373
 

The Creation of Larger Units

374
 

Caribbean Problems and Projects

375
 

The Army on the Mexican Border

377
 

The National Defense Act of 1916

381
 

An End to Neutrality

383
 

The Army Transformed

384
EPILOGUE
387

Maps

1.

Colonial North America

33

2.

Braddock's Expedition, June-July 1755

37
3.

Boston-Concord Area, 18-19 April 1775

49
4.

American Attack on Quebec, 28 August-2 December 1775

54
5.

Retreat from New York, October-December 1776

67
6.

Attack on Trenton, 26 December 1776

72
7.

Pennsylvania-New Jersey Area of Operations, 1777-1778

78
8.

Battle of Germantown, 4 October 1777

80
9.

Burgoyne's March on Albany, June-October 1777

82
10.

The Southern Area, 1778-1781

91
11.

Battle of the Cowpens, 17 January 1781

97
12.

Concentration of Forces at Yorktown, April-October 1781

100
13.

The Northern Frontier, 1783-1812

110
14.

West Expansion and Exploration, 1803-1807

125
15.

The Northern Frontier, War of 1812

133
16.

Niagara River Area, War of 1812

143
17.

The Southern Frontier, War of 1812

145
18.

Chesapeake Bay Area, 1812-1814

147
19. Westward Expansion, 1815-1845 167
20. The Mexican War, 1846-1847 179
21. The Civil War Area of Operations 199
22. Major Battles of the Eastern Theater, 1861-1865 206
23. Battle of Bull Run, 16-21 July 1861 209
24.

Peninsula Campaign, May-July 1862

226
25. Battle of Fredericksburg, 13 December 1862 234
26. Battle of Shiloh, 6 April 1862 239
27. The Battle of Stones River, 31 December 1862 243
28. Battle of Chancellorsville, 1-6 May 1863 251
29. Battle of Gettysburg, 1-3 July 1863 258
30. The Vicksburg Campaign, March-July 1863 258
31. Battles near Chattanooga, September-November 1863 269
32. Wilderness to Petersburg, May 1864-April 1865 285
33. Drive to Atlanta, 4 May-2 September 1864 290
34. The Civil War, 1861-1865 299
35.

The Trans-Mississippi West: Some Posts, Tribes, and Battles of the Indian Wars,    1860-1890

325
36. Greater Antilles Area of Operations, 1898 345
37. Siege of Santiago, 1-17 July 1898 351

Illustrations

The Army Seal

4

Battle Streamers

8

Alexander the Great

20

Gustavus Adolphus

22

Brown Bess Musket

24

American Artillery Crew in Action during the Revolutionary War

25

Vauban's Fortress

27

First Muster

31

Braddock's Defeat

39

Flintlock Rifle

42

Minutemen Bid Their Families Farewell

47

Presenting the Declaration of Independence

56

Pattern 1777 Cartridge Box

61

George Washington at Princeton

65

Surrender of Hessian Troops to General Washington after the Battle of Trenton, December 1776

71

Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben

77

Nathanael Greene

79

Benedict Arnold

84

English-made Pistols Presented to George Washington

88

Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, October 19th, 1781

102

Alexander Hamilton

109

Henry Knox

113

Washington Reviewing the West Army at Fort Cumberland, Maryland

115

Arthur St. Clair

117

Anthony Wayne

118

West Point, New York

122

Uniform Coat of Private of Connecticut Artillery, ca. 1808

132

Wooden Canteen of the Revolutionary War Era

136

Henry Dearborn

139

Winfield Scott

142

Jacob Brown

150

Battle of New Orleans

154

Pattern of 1812 Bell Crown Shako

160

William Harris Crawford

161

Model 1816 Flintlock Musket

162

Knapsack for Volunteer Militia, ca. 1830

168

On Stone

172

Stephen Watts Kearny

173

Gen' Scott's Entrance into Mexico

182

Pillow's Attack Advancing through the Woods of Chapultepec

187

Topographical Engineers Exploring the Colorado River

191

Noncommissioned Officer Frock Coat, ca. 1861

198

Artillery Fuse or Primer Pouch, ca 1861

198

View of Balloon Ascension, ca. 1862

201

Union Volunteers in Camp

202

Officers of the 55th Infantry at Fort Gaines

212
Army Camp #6 214

General McClellan's Field Glasses

215

Model 1861 Springfield Rifle

216

Naval Engagement in Hampton Roads

222

General "Jeb" Stuart, C.S.A., 1863

225

H. W. Halleck

227

Orange and Alexandria Railroad Military Bridge

228

General Halleck's Hardee Hat

228

The Bloody Lane, Battle of Antietam

230

107th Infantry Guards in Front of the Guard House

233

Joseph L. Hooker

250

Battle Flag for the Army of Northern Virginia

255

Gettysburg Battlefield

257

Little Round Top Signal Flag

259

Rudolph Ellis of Philadelphia as Officer of the Day

262

Battle of Chickamauga

272

Union Officers on Missionary Ridge

274

Abraham Lincoln

280

Forage Cap Belonging to General Grant

281

Grant's Council of War near Massaponax Church in Virginia

283

Sheridan's Ride

289

Reveille on a Winter Morning

293

A Nurse Caring for Wounded Union Soldiers

294

General Grant

296

General Lee

297

Henry O. Flipper

304

Emory Upton

310

Model 1898 Krag-Jörgensen Rifle

314

Members of the Greely Expedition

317

Artillery Helmet of the Late Nineteenth Century

322

Thornburgh's Battle

332

Tracking Victorio

334

Geronimo Meeting with General Crook

336

Wreck of the Maine, 1898

342

Khaki Field Coat for a Pennsylvania Artilleryman

346

Embarking for Cuba

348

San Juan Hill, July 10, 1898

352

General Otis' Staff and Assistants in Manila, 1899

355

Officer's Sleeping Quarters in China, ca. 1900

360

Caliber .45 Pistol

367

Elihu Root, Secretary of War, 1899-1904

369

Wright Bros. Experimental Military Aircraft

372

Construction of Locks for the Panama Canal

376

Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: cover illustration by Elzie R. Golden; 20, 22, 233, 294, 376, Corbis; 25, Fort Lewis Museum, Fort Lewis, Wash.; 24, 39, 42, 65, 88, 162, 182, 216, 274, 293, 314, West Point Museum Art Collection, U.S. Military Academy; 27, A Treatise of Fortifications, John Muller; 31, U.S. Army National Guard; 47, 56, PictureHistory.com; 71, 84, George Washington Bicentennial Commission; 77, 117, 118, 139, Independence National Historical Park; 102, Yale University Art Gallery; 109, National Gallery of Art; 115, Metropolitan Museum of Art; 122, U.S. Senate Collection; 154; New Orleans Museum of Art; 173, Department of the Navy; 201, 202, 212, 222, 225, 228 (top), 257, 280, 283, 296, 297, 310, 317, 336, 342, 355, 360, National Archives; 367, Courtesy of David C. Cole. All other illustrations from Department of the Army files.
ix-xv

 


Photo: Search CMH Online
Last updated 10 July 2006