Chapter VII
1 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 23.
2 Ibid., pp. 36-37. Some signal personnel were assigned to the Army Air Forces. See Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 6: 648 and 663-66.
3 Ruth F. Sadler, History of the Signal Corps Affiliated Plan, typescript [Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief Signal Officer, Aug 1944], p. 70, copy in CMH files; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 39.
4 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 508.
5 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 494.
6 Robert R. Palmer, Bell 1. Wiley, and William R. Keast, The Procurement and Training of Ground Combat Troops, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, Department of the Army, 1948), table 2, p. 17, and table 3, p. 18.
7 Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 106-09; "History of Fort Monmouth," p. 104; Historical Sketch, pp. 126-27; Weigley, History of Army, pp. 429-30.
8 Phillips, Signal Center and School, pp. 106-09, 136-49, 153; "History of Fort Monmouth," pp. 103-43; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 51-52, 319. The replacement training center at Fort Monmouth closed on 10 August 1943, and a unit training center was activated there and remained in operation until November 1943. Phillips, Signal Center and School, p. 149.
9 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 53-54, 189-96, 319.
10 Ibid., pp. 196-97, 319.
11 Prior to completion of the post, classes were held in a warehouse in nearby Riviera, Florida, beginning in April 1942. Camp Murphy closed its doors in October 1944 and air warning training returned to Fort Monmouth. Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 54-55, 212-17, 318; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 537-38.
12 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 29.
13 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 44-48.
14 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 288-91; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 56-57. Besides signal officers, air and antiaircraft officers were also included in the group. For a detailed account, see Ruth F. Sadler, History of the Electronics Training Group in the United Kingdom, typescript [Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief Signal Officer, Mar 1944], copy in CMH files.
15 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 315. By the end of 1942 the Signal Corps' percentage of the total Army had risen to 4.5, up from 3 (Test, p. 206).
16 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 318.
17 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 520-24.
18 Ibid., p. 539.
19 Ibid., pp. 22-26.
20 Ibid., pp. 507, 510-11.
21 The exact number of WACs serving with the Signal Corps is not known. See Mattie E. Treadwell, The Women's Army Corps, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1954), pp. 307-21; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 316.
22 Terrett, Emergency, p. 284; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 317; Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, 1966), pp. 132-33; Samuel A. Barnes, "We, Too, Serve Proudly," Army Communicator 2 (Summer 1977): 41-45; unit jackets, 275th Signal Company and 42d Signal Heavy Construction Battalion, DAMH-HSO.
23 For a brief sketch of Somervell and his previous career, see John D. Millett, The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1954), "Introduction." For a full-length study of Somervell, see John Kennedy Ohl, Supplying the Troops: General Somervell and American Logistics in WWII (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994).
24 WD Cir 59, 2 Mar 1942; Millett, Army Service Forces, ch. 2; Pogue, Marshall, 2: ch. 13; Weigley, History of Army, pp. 442-43.
25 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 15.
26 WD Cir 23, 18 Jan 1943.
27 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, ch. 16. For details on Sarnoff s military service during World War II, for which he received promotion to the rank of brigadier general in the Signal Corps Reserve, see Kenneth Bilby, The General: David Sarnoff and the Rise of the Communications Industry (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1986), ch. 7.
28 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 559-62.
29 Olmstead was not popular. Although devoted to the Signal Corps and the Army, "he was gruff and careless of human relations and the social amenities" (Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 560).
30 “Ingles, Harry C.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR.
31 Terrett, Emergency, p. 297; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 543; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 4; "Code, James Arthur, Jr.," biographical files, DAMH-HSR.
32 "The ACAN network consisted of the net control station in Washington, a network in the United States, and major trunk routes to overseas theater headquarters, where messages were relayed over the local networks of the individual theaters to their destination." (Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 142.)
33 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, ch. 18.
34 Ibid., pp. 588-91; Mary-louise Melia, Signal Corps Fixed Communications in World War 11: Special Assignments and Techniques, typescript [Washington, D.C.: Signal Corps Historical Section, Dec 1945], ch. 3, copy in CMH files.
35 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 603-04; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 431f, George J. McNally, "The White House Signal Team," Army Information Digest 2 (Aug 1947): 24-32.
36 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 310-12, 433. On work performed by the Bureau of Standards in this area during the war, see Cochrane, Measures for Progress, pp. 403-10.
37 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 580-82. The complex structure of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer is not discussed in this chapter. For an outline of its organization as of 1 July 1943, see the chart facing page 72 in Terrett, Emergency.
38 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 427, 448.
39 Ibid., pp. 460-63.
40 Ibid., pp. 524-25.
41 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 331.
42 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 319; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 333-34, 337, 340-42; Kahn, Codebreakers, p. 319.
43 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 336-37, 344; Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, pp. 134, 195.
44 Thomas M. Johnson, "Search for the Stolen Sigaba," Army 12 (Feb 1962): 50-55.
45 Kahn, Codebreakers, pp. 294-98.
46 "SIGSALY Declassified," Army Communicator 14 (Spring 1989): 27; David Kahn, "Cryptology and the Origins of Spread Spectrum," IEEE Spectrum 21 (Sep 1984): 70-80; Melia, Signal Corps Fixed Communications, pp. 30-33; The Achievements of the Signal Security Agency in World War II, Special Research History 349 [Washington, D.C.: Army Security Agency, 1946], pp. 45-46, copy in author's files. An excerpt from this document is included in James L. Gilbert and John P. Finnegan, eds., U.S. Army Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Documentary History (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1993), pp. 88-92. Other names for SIGSALY included the X-System and "Green Hornet," the latter because the system's control tones sounded somewhat like the theme of the popular radio program. For background and technical details of the project, see Fagen, ed., Bell System, 1925-1975, pp. 291-317.
47 Melia, Signal Corps Fixed Communications, pp. 28-30; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 587-88.
48 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 347; Kahn, Codebreakers, p. 321.
49 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 37-38, 65-67, 346-48. The units were organized under TOE 11-875.
50 Ronald Lewin, Ultra Goes to War (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978), pp. 27-28, 33-34.
51 Ibid., pp. 58-60, 69-70. The term ULTRA was also applied to intelligence derived from Japanese sources.
52 Ibid., p. 239.
53 Ronald Lewin, The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers, and the Defeat of Japan (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1982), ch. 11; Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, pp. 161-63; Kahn, Codebreakers, p. 273.
54 Gilbert and Finnegan, eds., Army Signals Intelligence in World War II, pp. 8-9.
55 Lewin, Ultra Goes to War, chs. 11 and 12; Charles B. MacDonald, A Time for Trumpets: The Untold Story of the Battle of the Bulge (New York: William Morrow, 1985), chs. 1-3.
56 Alison R. Bernstein, American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) pp. 46-49; Michael W. Rodgers, "Indian Code-Talkers of WWII" (Fort Gordon, Ga.: U.S. Army Signal Museum, n.d.); Kahn, Codebreakers, pp. 289-90; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 218. During World War I several Choctaw Indians had briefly been used as code-talkers during the Meuse-Argonne campaign. See material in file 291.2, "Indians," DAMH-HSR.
57 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 39. Also on 8 December, the War Department authorized the censorship of all communications to and from personnel under military control outside the United States. Stetson Conn, Rose C. Engelman, and Byron Fairchild, Guarding the United States and Its Outposts, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1964), p. 202.
58 Lewin, American Magic, ch. 5.
59 Kreidberg and Henry, Military Mobilization, pp. 614-15; Barnouw, History of Broadcasting, 2: 156.
60 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 447.
61 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 403. For a detailed discussion of the Army Pictorial Service, see James V. Clarke, Signal Corps Army Pictorial Service in World War II (1 September 1939-16 August 1945), typescript [Washington, D.C.: Signal Corps Historical Section, Dec 1945], copy in CMH files. See also Barbara Burger et al., comps., Audiovisual Records in the National Archives of the United States Relating to World War II, Reference Information Paper 70 (revised) (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1992).
62 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 390.
63 Richard Koszarski, The Astoria Studios and Its Fabulous Films (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1983); Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 390.
64 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 394-96; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 574; Maslowski, Armed With Cameras, pp. 241-43.
65 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 392; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 563.
66 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 408-11; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 565-69; Clarke, Army Pictorial Service, ch. 4.
67 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 392-94; Clarke, Army Pictorial Service, pp. 25-30.
68 Sadler, Affiliated Plan, pp. 99-100 and Exhibit F; Maslowski, Armed With Cameras, pp. 118-22. In this study of the military cameramen of World War II, Maslowski focuses on the Army's 163d and 166th Signal Photographic Companies and the 832d Signal Service Battalion. He also discusses the work of photographic units of the Army Air Forces, the Navy, and the Marines.
69 Capra was initially assigned to the Morale Branch of the War Department as chief of its film production section. In September 1943 he and his unit were transferred to the control of the chief signal officer. Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 415; Clarke, Army Pictorial Service, p. 176. Capra describes his World War II experiences in his autobiography, The Name Above the Title (New York: Vintage Books, 1985).
70 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 415-16; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 555-56; "Whimsical Dr. Seuss Dies at 87," Washington Post, 26 Sep 91.
71 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 358; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 54-55. Zanuck chronicled his wartime service in North Africa in Tunis Expedition (New York: Random House, 1943).
72 Maslowski, Armed With Cameras, ch. 3; Burger et al., Audiovisual Records in National Archives, pp. 6-7.
73 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 548.
74 Ibid., p. 544.
75 Signal Corps photographers shot half of the still pictures published in American newspapers, magazines, and books in 1944 (Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 565).
76 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 564-66, 605-07; Maslowski, Armed With Cameras, pp. 55-61.
77 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 551-52. This service began in early 1944. See also Maslowski, Armed With Cameras, pp. 292-94.
78 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 407-08.
79 For photo regulations, see AR 105-5, 1 Dec 1942, and AR 105-255, 7 May 1942; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 576-79; Judy Barrett Litoff and David C. Smith, "`Will He Get My Letter?': Popular Portrayals of Mail and Morale During World War II," Journal of Popular Culture 23 (Spring 1990): 21-43.
80 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 84.
81 The Inspector General's Department also investigated the Army's photographic program. See Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 418-25; Maslowski, Armed With Cameras, pp. 282-83.
82 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 404, 418-24; Millett, Army Service Forces, pp. 97-98.
83 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 396-97, 400-405; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 570-76. The signal photo company was organized under TOE 11-37.
84 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 556-58.
85 ARSO, 1946, p. 597, typescript in CMH library. A copy of the print faces page 597.
86 Terrett, Emergency, p. 33; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 7, n. 20; Guerlac, Radar in World War II, 1: 104.
87 Camp Evans was named for Lt. Col. Paul W. Evans, the signal officer who had seen the early version of Enigma in 1931. He had died in the Canal Zone in April 1936 while serving as signal officer of the Panama Canal Department.
88 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 62-63; Guerlac, Radar in World War II, 1: 104.
89 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 625; Millett, Army Service Forces, p. 272.
90 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 150-51. Millett, Army Service Forces, contains three chapters on the board and its relationship with the Army Service Forces.
91 Cochrane, Measures for Progress, pp. 375, 408-26; Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 154-73.
92 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 378f, Cochrane, Measures for Progress, p. 416.
93 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 184-85.
94 Ibid., pp. 328-31. See Table 6, "Signal Corps Procurement of Selected Major Items, 1 Jan 40-31 Dec 45," in Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, pp. 18-20.
95 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 492; ARSO, 1946, p. 6.
96 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 411-17, 530-31.
97 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 325f.
98 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 431.
99 Vannevar Bush, Pieces of the Action (New York: Morrow, 1970), ch. 2; Millett, Army Service Forces, p. 238; Allison, New Eye, pp. 155-59.
100 Terrett, Emergency, pp. 191-202; James Phinney Baxter, III, Scientists Against Time (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1947), pp. 119-21 f.
101 For a discussion of the NDRC/OSRD's work, see Baxter, Scientists Against Time, and Irvin Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the OSRD (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1948). For its work on radar, see Guerlac, Radar in World War II.
102 Guerlac, Radar in World War II, 1: 430-34; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 477.
103 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, pp. 377f.
104 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 472, 474.
105 Ibid., p. 470.
106 Ibid., pp. 468-82; Baxter, Scientists Against Time, pp. 234-36; Guerlac, Radar in World War II, 1: 282-83, 325-28; 2: 853-57, 891-93.
107 W. S. Rumbough, "Radio Relay, the War's Great Development in Signal Communications," Military Review 26 (May 1946): 3-12; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 92, 224, 259-65.
108 Fagen, ed., Bell System, 1925-1975, pp. 335-38; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 224.
109 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 66.
110 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 250.
111 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 66; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 223-24; Fagen, ed., Bell System, 1925-1975, pp. 265-70.
112 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 69.
113 Ibid., p. 73.
114 Terrett, Emergency, p. 5; Pogue, Marshall, 2: 335; Thomas Parrish, Roosevelt and Marshall: Partners in Politics and War (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1989), p. 288.
115 Thompson, Harris, et al., Test, p. 75.
116 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 492. Details of the development of these radios by Bell Laboratories is given in Fagen, ed., Bell System, 1925-1975, pp. 319-27.
117 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 503-04.
118 Ibid., p. 583.
119 Baxter, Scientists Against Time, ch. 15; Cochrane, Measures for Progress, pp. 388-99; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 463.
120 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 5-6. Colton's position then became chief of the engineering and technical service.
121 Ibid., pp. 429-30.
122 Ibid., pp. 435, 437-40.
123 WD Cir 59, 2 May 42, par. 6; Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 438.
124 For details, see Thompson and Harris, Outcome, ch. 14. The personnel losses are as of April 1945. For a list of the categories of equipment transferred to the AAF, see Outcome, p. 457, n. 86. The transfer is also discussed in Millett, Army Service Forces, pp. 127-29; Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, 6: 374.
125 Dupree, Science in Federal Government, ch. 19; Allison, New Eye, pp. 184-85.
126 Dupree, Science in Federal Government, ch. 19; Cochrane, Measures for Progress, p. 363; Millett, Army Service Forces, pp. 236-39.
127 Total Signal Corps strength in 1918 stood at about 56,000. Strength of the Army (1 Oct 1944), p. 16, gives the Signal Corps' aggregate strength as 352,309. On its strength at the end of the war, see Strength of the Army (1 May 1945), p. 22, and Thompson and Harris, Outcome, p. 512. Figures on the Army's total strength are given in Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, table 16, p. 122, and Weigley, History of Army, p. 435 and appendix. The Signal Corps' peak civilian strength was 61,628 according to Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, p. 114. The date at which this strength was achieved is not given.
128 The Signal Corps sustained 2,840 casualties during World War I compared to 3,993 in World War II. For World War II casualty figures, see U.S. War Department, Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths in World War II, Final Report (7 December 1941-31 December 1946) (Washington, D.C.: Office of The Adjutant General, Jun 1953), p. 47.
129 Thompson and Harris, Outcome, pp. 581-82.
130 Omar N. Bradley, A Soldier's Story (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1951), p. 474.
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